Peer Reviewed Journal Article With Good Examples of Dependent and Independent Variables

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Peer-reviewed

Research Article

Feet, Touch, Self-Esteem, and Stress: Arbitration and Moderation Effects on Low

• Ali Al Nima,
• Patricia Rosenberg,
• Trevor Archer,
• Danilo Garcia

x

• Published: September 9, 2013
• https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0073265

Correction

Figures

Abstruse

Background

Mediation assay investigates whether a variable (i.e., mediator) changes in regard to an independent variable, in plow, affecting a dependent variable. Moderation analysis, on the other mitt, investigates whether the statistical interaction between contained variables predict a dependent variable. Although this divergence betwixt these two types of assay is explicit in electric current literature, in that location is still confusion with regard to the mediating and moderating effects of different variables on depression. The purpose of this study was to assess the mediating and moderating furnishings of anxiety, stress, positive touch on, and negative affect on depression.

Methods

Ii hundred and two university students (males  = 93, females  = 113) completed questionnaires assessing feet, stress, self-esteem, positive and negative affect, and depression. Mediation and moderation analyses were conducted using techniques based on standard multiple regression and hierarchical regression analyses.

Main Findings

The results indicated that (i) anxiety partially mediated the furnishings of both stress and cocky-esteem upon depression, (2) that stress partially mediated the effects of anxiety and positive bear upon upon low, (iii) that stress completely mediated the effects of self-esteem on low, and (iv) that there was a significant interaction between stress and negative affect, and between positive affect and negative touch on upon low.

Conclusion

The report highlights dissimilar research questions that can be investigated depending on whether researchers decide to use the same variables as mediators and/or moderators.

Citation: Nima AA, Rosenberg P, Archer T, Garcia D (2013) Feet, Bear on, Self-Esteem, and Stress: Mediation and Moderation Effects on Depression. PLoS Ane 8(ix): e73265. https://doi.org/ten.1371/periodical.pone.0073265

Editor: Ben J. Harrison, The University of Melbourne, Australia

Received: Feb 21, 2013; Accepted: July 22, 2013; Published: September 9, 2013

Copyright: © 2013 Nima et al. This is an open up-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Eatables Attribution License, which permits unrestricted apply, distribution, and reproduction in whatsoever medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

Funding: The authors have no back up or funding to report.

Competing interests: The authors take declared that no competing interests exist.

Introduction

Mediation refers to the covariance relationships among three variables: an contained variable (1), an causeless mediating variable (2), and a dependent variable (3). Mediation analysis investigates whether the mediating variable accounts for a significant amount of the shared variance between the independent and the dependent variables–the mediator changes in regard to the independent variable, in turn, affecting the dependent one [1], [two]. On the other hand, moderation refers to the examination of the statistical interaction between contained variables in predicting a dependent variable [one], [3]. In contrast to the mediator, the moderator is not expected to exist correlated with both the independent and the dependent variable–Baron and Kenny [ane] actually recommend that it is best if the moderator is not correlated with the contained variable and if the moderator is relatively stable, similar a demographic variable (e.g., gender, socio-economic status) or a personality trait (due east.m., affectivity).

Although both types of assay pb to different conclusions [3] and the stardom between statistical procedures is office of the current literature [two], there is yet confusion about the use of moderation and arbitration analyses using data pertaining to the prediction of depression. There are, for instance, contradictions amidst studies that investigate mediating and moderating effects of feet, stress, self-esteem, and affect on low. Depression, anxiety and stress are suggested to influence individuals' social relations and activities, work, and studies, as well as compromising determination-making and coping strategies [iv], [5], [half dozen]. Successfully coping with feet, depressiveness, and stressful situations may contribute to high levels of self-esteem and self-confidence, in add-on increasing well-being, and psychological and concrete health [half dozen]. Thus, it is important to disentangle how these variables are related to each other. However, while some researchers perform mediation analysis with some of the variables mentioned hither, other researchers conduct moderation analysis with the aforementioned variables. Seldom are both moderation and arbitration performed on the same dataset. Before disentangling mediation and moderation effects on depression in the current literature, nosotros briefly present the methodology backside the analysis performed in this study.

Arbitration and moderation

Baron and Kenny [1] postulated several criteria for the analysis of a mediating event: a significant correlation betwixt the independent and the dependent variable, the independent variable must be significantly associated with the mediator, the mediator predicts the dependent variable fifty-fifty when the contained variable is controlled for, and the correlation betwixt the independent and the dependent variable must be eliminated or reduced when the mediator is controlled for. All the criteria is so tested using the Sobel exam which shows whether indirect effects are significant or not [1], [7]. A complete mediating effect occurs when the correlation between the independent and the dependent variable are eliminated when the mediator is controlled for [8]. Analyses of mediation can, for example, assist researchers to move beyond answering if high levels of stress lead to high levels of low. With mediation analysis researchers might instead answer how stress is related to low.

In contrast to mediation, moderation investigates the unique conditions under which 2 variables are related [3]. The third variable here, the moderator, is not an intermediate variable in the causal sequence from the independent to the dependent variable. For the analysis of moderation furnishings, the relation betwixt the contained and dependent variable must be unlike at different levels of the moderator [3]. Moderators are included in the statistical analysis as an interaction term [1]. When analyzing moderating effects the variables should get-go be centered (i.e., computing the hateful to get 0 and the standard deviation to become one) in lodge to avoid problems with multi-colinearity [8]. Moderating furnishings tin be calculated using multiple hierarchical linear regressions whereby chief effects are presented in the first step and interactions in the 2d step [1]. Analysis of moderation, for instance, helps researchers to answer when or under which atmospheric condition stress is related to depression.

Arbitration and moderation effects on low

Cognitive vulnerability models propose that maladaptive self-schema mirroring helplessness and low self-esteem explain the development and maintenance of depression (for a review see [ix]). These cerebral vulnerability factors become activated by negative life events or negative moods [ten] and are suggested to interact with environmental stressors to increment gamble for depression and other emotional disorders [11], [x]. In this line of thinking, the experience of stress, depression self-esteem, and negative emotions can cause depression, but also be used to explain how (i.e., mediation) and under which conditions (i.e., moderation) specific variables influence low.

Using mediational analyses to investigate how cognitive therapy intervations reduced depression, researchers accept showed that the intervention reduced anxiety, which in turn was responsible for 91% of the reduction in depression [12]. In the same report, reductions in depression, past the intervention, accounted simply for 6% of the reduction in anxiety. Thus, anxiety seems to affect depression more than than depression affects anxiety and, together with stress, is both a crusade of and a powerful mediator influencing depression (See also [13]). Indeed, in that location are positive relationships between depression, anxiety and stress in different cultures [14]. Moreover, while some studies show that stress (independent variable) increases feet (mediator), which in plough increased low (dependent variable) [xiv], other studies show that stress (moderator) interacts with maladaptive self-schemata (dependent variable) to increase low (independent variable) [fifteen], [16].

The present study

In guild to illustrate how arbitration and moderation can be used to address different enquiry questions we first focus our attention to anxiety and stress as mediators of different variables that earlier have been shown to exist related to low. Secondly, nosotros use all variables to discover which of these variables moderate the furnishings on depression.

The specific aims of the nowadays study were:

1. To investigate if anxiety mediated the effect of stress, self-esteem, and bear upon on depression.
2. To investigate if stress mediated the effects of anxiety, self-esteem, and bear upon on low.
3. To examine moderation furnishings betwixt feet, stress, self-esteem, and affect on depression.

Methods

Ethics statement

This research protocol was approved by the Ethics Commission of the University of Gothenburg and written informed consent was obtained from all the study participants.

Participants

The nowadays study was based upon a sample of 206 participants (males  = 93, females  = 113). All the participants were first year students in different disciplines at two universities in Southward Sweden. The hateful age for the male students was 25.93 years (SD = six.66), and 25.thirty years (SD = v.83) for the female person students.

In total, 206 questionnaires were distributed to the students. Together 202 questionnaires were responded to leaving a total dropout of i.94%. This dropout concerned three sections that the participants chose not to respond to at all, and one section that was completed incorrectly. None of these four questionnaires was included in the analyses.

Instruments

Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale [17].

The Swedish translation of this instrument [18] was used to measure anxiety and low. The instrument consists of 14 statements (vii of which measure low and 7 measure anxiety) to which participants are asked to respond form of agreement on a Likert scale (0 to iii). The utility, reliability and validity of the instrument has been shown in multiple studies (e.g., [xix]).

Perceived Stress Scale [20].

The Swedish version [21] of this musical instrument was used to measures individuals' experience of stress. The instrument consist of 14 statements to which participants charge per unit on a Likert scale (0 = never, 4 = very oft). Loftier values indicate that the private expresses a high degree of stress.

Rosenberg's Self-Esteem Scale [22].

The Rosenberg'south Self-Esteem Scale (Swedish version by Lindwall [23]) consists of 10 statements focusing on general feelings toward the self. Participants are asked to report grade of understanding in a four-indicate Likert scale (ane = agree not at all, 4 = agree completely). This is the most widely used musical instrument for estimation of self-esteem with high levels of reliability and validity (east.m., [24], [25]).

Positive Affect and Negative Bear on Schedule [26].

This is a widely applied musical instrument for measuring individuals' self-reported mood and feelings. The Swedish version has been used amongst participants of different ages and occupations (e.m., [27], [28], [29]). The musical instrument consists of 20 adjectives, 10 positive affect (e.g., proud, strong) and 10 negative affect (e.yard., afraid, irritable). The adjectives are rated on a five-point Likert calibration (1 = not at all, five = very much). The instrument is a reliable, valid, and effective self-report instrument for estimating these ii of import and independent aspects of mood [26].

Procedure

Questionnaires were distributed to the participants on several different locations within the academy, including the library and lecture halls. Participants were asked to complete the questionnaire after being informed most the purpose and duration (10–15 minutes) of the study. Participants were also ensured consummate anonymity and informed that they could terminate their participation whenever they liked.

Results

Correlational assay

Depression showed positive, significant relationships with anxiety, stress and negative affect. Table 1 presents the correlation coefficients, mean values and standard deviations (sd), also as Cronbach'due south α for all the variables in the study.

Arbitration assay

Regression analyses were performed in order to investigate if anxiety mediated the outcome of stress, self-esteem, and affect on depression (aim 1). The first regression showed that stress (B = .03, 95% CI [.02,.05], β = .36, t = 4.32, p<.001), self-esteem (B = −.03, 95% CI [−.05, −.01], β = −.24, t = −3.20, p<.001), and positive affect (B = −.02, 95% CI [−.05, −.01], β = −.19, t = −two.93, p = .004) had each an unique upshot on depression. Surprisingly, negative touch did not predict depression (p = 0.77) and was therefore removed from the mediation model, thus not included in farther analysis.

The second regression tested whether stress, self-esteem and positive touch uniquely predicted the mediator (i.due east., feet). Stress was found to exist positively associated (B = .21, 95% CI [.15,.27], β = .47, t = 7.35, p<.001), whereas self-esteem was negatively associated (B = −.29, 95% CI [−.38, −.21], β = −.42, t = −6.48, p<.001) to anxiety. Positive affect, however, was not associated to anxiety (p = .50) and was therefore removed from further analysis.

A hierarchical regression analysis using depression as the outcome variable was performed using stress and cocky-esteem as predictors in the first footstep, and anxiety as predictor in the second step. This assay allows the test of whether stress and self-esteem predict depression and if this relation is weaken in the presence of feet as the mediator. The upshot indicated that, in the first step, both stress (B = .04, 95% CI [.03,.05], β = .45, t = six.43, p<.001) and cocky-esteem (B = .04, 95% CI [.03,.05], β = .45, t = half dozen.43, p<.001) predicted depression. When anxiety (i.east., the mediator) was controlled for predictability was reduced somewhat but was however meaning for stress (B = .03, 95% CI [.02,.04], β = .33, t = 4.29, p<.001) and for self-esteem (B = −.03, 95% CI [−.05, −.01], β = −.20, t = −two.62, p = .009). Anxiety, as a mediator, predicted depression even when both stress and self-esteem were controlled for (B = .05, 95% CI [.02,.08], β = .26, t = 3.17, p = .002). Anxiety improved the prediction of depression over-and-in a higher place the independent variables (i.eastward., stress and self-esteem) (ΔR ² = .03, F (1, 198) = 10.06, p = .002). Come across Table 2 for the details.

A Sobel test was conducted to test the mediating criteria and to appraise whether indirect effects were meaning or non. The upshot showed that the consummate pathway from stress (contained variable) to anxiety (mediator) to depression (dependent variable) was meaning (z = 2.89, p = .003). The consummate pathway from cocky-esteem (independent variable) to anxiety (mediator) to low (dependent variable) was also significant (z = 2.82, p = .004). Thus, indicating that anxiety partially mediates the effects of both stress and self-esteem on low. This result may betoken also that both stress and self-esteem contribute directly to explain the variation in low and indirectly via experienced level of anxiety (see Figure 1).

Effigy 1. Mediation model showing that the consequence of stress and self-esteem (independent variables) on depression (effect) is mediated by feet (mediator).

Changes in Beta weights when the mediator is present are highlighted in red.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0073265.g001

For the second aim, regression analyses were performed in order to exam if stress mediated the effect of anxiety, self-esteem, and affect on depression. The first regression showed that anxiety (B = .07, 95% CI [.04,.10], β = .37, t = 4.57, p<.001), self-esteem (B = −.02, 95% CI [−.05, −.01], β = −.18, t = −2.23, p = .03), and positive affect (B = −.03, 95% CI [−.04, −.02], β = −.27, t = −4.35, p<.001) predicted low independently of each other. Negative bear on did not predict depression (p = 0.74) and was therefore removed from further assay.

The second regression investigated if anxiety, self-esteem and positive touch uniquely predicted the mediator (i.e., stress). Stress was positively associated to anxiety (B = 1.01, 95% CI [.75, 1.30], β = .46, t = 7.35, p<.001), negatively associated to self-esteem (B = −.30, 95% CI [−.50, −.01], β = −.19, t = −2.xc, p = .004), and a negatively associated to positive impact (B = −.33, 95% CI [−.46, −.20], β = −.27, t = −v.02, p<.001).

A hierarchical regression assay using depression as the outcome and anxiety, self-esteem, and positive affect as the predictors in the kickoff step, and stress as the predictor in the second stride, immune the examination of whether anxiety, cocky-esteem and positive bear upon predicted depression and if this clan would weaken when stress (i.due east., the mediator) was present. In the commencement pace of the regression anxiety (B = .07, 95% CI [.05,.x], β = .38, t = 5.31, p = .02), self-esteem (B = −.03, 95% CI [−.05, −.01], β = −.xviii, t = −ii.41, p = .02), and positive affect (B = −.03, 95% CI [−.04, −.02], β = −.27, t = −4.36, p<.001) significantly explained low. When stress (i.e., the mediator) was controlled for, predictability was reduced somewhat but was nevertheless significant for feet (B = .05, 95% CI [.02,.08], β = .05, t = four.29, p<.001) and for positive bear on (B = −.02, 95% CI [−.04, −.01], β = −.20, t = −3.16, p = .002), whereas self-esteem did not reach significance (p< = .08). In the 2nd step, the mediator (i.e., stress) predicted low even when anxiety, self-esteem, and positive affect were controlled for (B = .02, 95% CI [.08,.04], β = .25, t = 3.07, p = .002). Stress improved the prediction of depression over-and-above the independent variables (i.e., anxiety, self-esteem and positive affect) (ΔR ² = .02, F(1, 197)  = 9.40, p = .002). Meet Table 3 for the details.

Furthermore, the Sobel examination indicated that the complete pathways from the independent variables (anxiety: z = 2.81, p = .004; self-esteem: z =  2.05, p = .04; positive affect: z = 2.58, p<.01) to the mediator (i.e., stress), to the effect (i.east., low) were meaning. These specific results might be explained on the ground that stress partially mediated the effects of both anxiety and positive affect on depression while stress completely mediated the furnishings of self-esteem on depression. In other words, anxiety and positive affect contributed straight to explain the variation in low and indirectly via the experienced level of stress. Self-esteem contributed simply indirectly via the experienced level of stress to explicate the variation in depression. In other words, stress furnishings on depression originate from "its own power" and explained more of the variation in low than self-esteem (meet Figure 2).

Effigy 2. Mediation model showing that the effect of anxiety, positive bear upon, and self-esteem (dependent variables) on depression (result) is mediated by stress (mediator).

Changes in Beta weights when the mediator is present are highlighted in crimson.

https://doi.org/ten.1371/journal.pone.0073265.g002

Moderation analysis

Multiple linear regression analyses were used in order to examine moderation effects betwixt feet, stress, self-esteem and affect on depression. The analysis indicated that about 52% of the variation in the dependent variable (i.e., depression) could be explained by the main effects and the interaction effects (R ² = .55, adapted R ² = .51, F (55, 186)  = 14.87, p<.001). When the variables (dependent and independent) were standardized, both the standardized regression coefficients beta (β) and the unstandardized regression coefficients beta (B) became the same value with regard to the chief effects. Iii of the main furnishings were significant and contributed uniquely to high levels of depression: feet (B = .26, t = iii.12, p = .002), stress (B = .25, t = 2.86, p = .005), and self-esteem (B = −.17, t = −2.17, p = .03). The principal effect of positive impact was also significant and contributed to low levels of low (B = −.16, t = −2.027, p = .02) (see Figure 3). Furthermore, the results indicated that two moderator furnishings were significant. These were the interaction between stress and negative affect (B = −.28, β = −.39, t = −2.36, p = .02) (see Figure iv) and the interaction between positive touch and negative bear on (B = −.21, β = −.29, t = −2.30, p = .02) (Effigy v).

Figure four. Showing the meaning interaction between stress and negative impact upon depression.

Low stress and low negative affect leads to lower levels of low compared to high stress and high negative affect.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0073265.g004

Figure five. Showing the significant interaction between positive and negative affect on depression.

High positive impact and low negative impact lead to lower levels of low compared to low positive bear upon and high negative affect.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0073265.g005

Word

The results in the present report evidence that (i) anxiety partially mediated the effects of both stress and self-esteem on depression, (two) that stress partially mediated the effects of anxiety and positive affect on depression, (iii) that stress completely mediated the effects of self-esteem on depression, and (iv) that at that place was a significant interaction between stress and negative touch, and positive bear upon and negative touch on on depression.

Mediating effects

The report suggests that feet contributes directly to explaining the variance in low while stress and self-esteem might contribute directly to explaining the variance in depression and indirectly by increasing feelings of anxiety. Indeed, individuals who experience stress over a long menstruation of time are susceptible to increased anxiety and depression [thirty], [31] and previous research shows that high self-esteem seems to buffer against anxiety and depression [32], [33]. The report also showed that stress partially mediated the effects of both anxiety and positive affect on depression and that stress completely mediated the effects of self-esteem on low. Feet and positive bear upon contributed direct to explain the variation in low and indirectly to the experienced level of stress. Cocky-esteem contributed but indirectly via the experienced level of stress to explain the variation in depression, i.eastward. stress affects depression on the footing of 'its ain power' and explains much more than of the variation in depressive experiences than self-esteem. In general, individuals who feel depression anxiety and often experience positive impact seem to feel low stress, which might reduce their levels of depression. Academic stress, for instance, may increment the risk for experiencing depression among students [34]. Although cocky-esteem did non emerged as an of import variable here, nether circumstances in which difficulties in life become chronic, some researchers suggest that low self-esteem facilitates the experience of stress [35].

Moderator furnishings/interaction furnishings

The present study showed that the interaction betwixt stress and negative affect and between positive and negative affect influenced cocky-reported depression symptoms. Moderation effects between stress and negative touch on imply that the students experiencing low levels of stress and low negative affect reported lower levels of depression than those who experience high levels of stress and high negative bear upon. This issue confirms earlier findings that underline the potent positive association between negative bear on and both stress and depression [36], [37]. Nevertheless, negative impact by itself did not predicted depression. In this regard, information technology is important to point out that the absence of positive emotions is a better predictor of morbidity than the presence of negative emotions [38], [39]. A modification to this statement, as illustrated by the results discussed adjacent, could be that the presence of negative emotions in conjunction with the absence of positive emotions increases morbidity.

The moderating furnishings between positive and negative affect on the experience of depression imply that the students experiencing loftier levels of positive touch and low levels of negative affect reported lower levels of low than those who experience depression levels of positive affect and high levels of negative touch. This effect fits previous observations indicating that unlike combinations of these affect dimensions are related to unlike measures of concrete and mental health and well-being, such as, claret pressure, depression, quality of slumber, feet, life satisfaction, psychological well-being, and self-regulation [twoscore]–[51].

Limitations

The event indicated a relatively low hateful value for depression (G = 3.69), perhaps because the studied population was university students. These might limit the generalization power of the results and might also explain why negative touch, usually associated to depression, was not related to depression in the present report. Moreover, there is a potential influence of single source/unmarried method variance on the findings, particularly given the high correlation betwixt all the variables under examination.

Conclusions

The present report highlights unlike results that could be arrived depending on whether researchers decide to use variables every bit mediators or moderators. For instance, when using meditational analyses, anxiety and stress seem to exist important factors that explain how the different variables used here influence depression–increases in anxiety and stress by any other gene seem to pb to increases in depression. In contrast, when moderation analyses were used, the interaction of stress and bear on predicted low and the interaction of both affectivity dimensions (i.e., positive and negative affect) as well predicted low–stress might increase depression under the condition that the individual is high in negative affectivity, in turn, negative affectivity might increase depression nether the condition that the individual experiences low positive affectivity.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank the reviewers for their openness and suggestions, which significantly improved the article.

Writer Contributions

Conceived and designed the experiments: AAN TA. Performed the experiments: AAN. Analyzed the data: AAN DG. Contributed reagents/materials/analysis tools: AAN TA DG. Wrote the paper: AAN PR TA DG.

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Source: https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0073265

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